This blog entry is a DOOZIE and contains everything we did and talked about today. It is endlessly fascinating but it will take some commitment! Sophia will be chiming in a little later with some big picture analysis and discussion about some of the issues that were raised today.
Today we began our morning with an absolutely fantastic breakfast spread. Fresh, crispy baguettes, cheese, butter,marmalade, pastries, eggs, and endless coffee and tea were just what we needed to start the day.
Asumi, Veronika, Julia and Sameera enjoying breakfast.
There was an unfortunate mishap with our bus (it broke down) so instead we were picked up behind schedule in (I kid you not) a preschool bus. Complete with tiny seats, colorful puzzle piece floor decorations, and cartoon print curtains). It was absolutely hilarious to have that as our limo service for the day.
Crammed into the kiddie bus...and LOVING IT.
Once we got to the MoE, we got down to business and participated in a work session with the Director of
Curriculum. The presentation was based on a powerpoint presentation that was in
Arabic, presented in French, and translated to English by Rita and our translator.
It was an incredibly interesting presentation that included a great deal of
history about Moroccan education, that brought us up to present day and the
role of the curriculum department and current Ministry of Education (MoE). I will warn you right now that I found this
absolutely fascinating as a former teacher, so my description will be
exhaustive. If you just want the broader picture, please feel free to jump to
Sophia's entry!
Schools in Morocco were created
more than fourteen centuries ago, and archaeological research shows that arenas
were used (much like those in Greece) for delivering education and exchanging
ideas. These schools predate the arrival of the Arabs and Islam in Morocco. As
new dynasties developed to govern the nation, there was a focus on creating
schools, which were a place for training three specific groups: public
employees who would govern the society, judges who would develop and enforce
laws, and businessmen who would be in charge of commerce and trade. Another
function of schools were necessary, was for military training. However these
schools did not follow the same curriculum or have the same content as the
previous three types of schools. When we visit Marakkech, we will see a large
pool created a long time ago, that was used to train navigators in the old
capital city.
When you look back at the history
of Moroccan education and the legacy left by their ancestors, you can see a
pattern emerge where education is based on three fundamental pillars: language,
grammar (which used to be written in the form of poetry), and rhetorical
practices (how we use and apply the language). The three pillars are present
across the Arab world, which stretches from Morocco to southern Asia. These
practices were developed based on the foundation of the Koranic texts, and were
used to explain the Koran. They are found in the words of the Prophet and the
practices left by Him. In the Islamic region, women and men are both encouraged
and supported to learn. In ancient times they were taught in medicine,
astronomy, and mathematics, which were used to bring the learner closer to God.
The oldest university in the world, created in 1400, can be found in Fez. It is
still in operation, and focuses on religious studies. Famous schoars lived
throughout Morocco, including a large group in Marakkech, and were trained in
divinity, philosophy, law, and medicine.
The Director of Curriculum, his assistant, and our stellar translator and team member, Rita!
We were running out of time, so
unfortunately we had to jump about 500 years forward in history. In 2001, there
was a major educational reform called the National Charter of Education. It was
adopted by national concensus and defined the major roles of education, which
were called Levers of Change. We focused on the Lever that discussed the
development of academic programs. There are different mechanisms for developing
academic programs, and the problems faced by Morocco are common accross the
region. The soure of these issues can be found in the history of Morocco,
especially the following event. In 1830, Morocco was defeated by France and
created a psychological shock for the intellectual elite of Morocco. They had
archaic weapons and found that they were at a great technological disadvantage.
After this battle, Morocco turned inward, and closed off much of the world.
Current problems related to curriculum development can mostly be categorized
into seven* areas:
1. Choice of Content: How should
content be defined? On what foundations should it be built? Should it be one
that promotes Moroccan or Islamic identity, or should it be content that is
open to globalization and the rest of the world?
2. Language of Instruction: There
has been a historical delay in the recognition of different languages that are
used to teach (Arabic, French, Tamazight, etc). Should education be presented
only in Arabic, or should schools use the language of the previous colonizers,
French?
3. Values Promotion: What values
should be promoted? Islamic? Internationally decided upon rights (of children,
women, etc)? Cultural?
4. Democratization of Schooling:
How can school be made available for everyone? Should there be a focus on mass
learning (with probable decreases in quality) or should focus be on presenting
quality education for a certain group of students? The cost of education is
relatively high in Morocco, so it is necessary to find better ways of financing
schools. Currently, one quarter of the government budget is dedicated to
education, but there are still many students without access to schools, and
schools that are attended may be of poor quality. How can schools be made a
sustainable institution? This effects curriculum development.
*Sadly we only got to hear about
the first four...
The National Charter, defined different ways to work on
curriculum development, and tried to address the important questions outlined above.
After the charter was adopted, different commissions were created that
represented different ways of thought (including religious, scientific, etc)
with different types of people subscribing to them. These different ways of
thought were incorporated into the manuals outlining current standards for
learning, including the content that should be covered for each cycle of
schooling, how much time should be devoted to different subjects and skills,
how learning should be evaluated, and the materials and training necessary to
present lessons effectively in the classroom. This is the first time in
Moroccan history that standards/books/manuals are created by and for Moroccans.
In the past, much of the curriculum was determined by the French, but now it is
Moroccan only which is (rightfully) a great source of pride for the the MoE.
After the adoption of the programs in 2001, a program of
textbook creation and evaluation began. Previously, there was one textbook per
subject, per grade, that was adopted at the national level. The MoE began to
question if this was the most effective way to present materials, or if it was
restricting educational growth. They interviewed multiple stakeholders
(teachers, students, community officials, school leaders, etc) and the consensus
was that having only one book for every Moroccan classroom restricts the
pedagogy and progression of learning on a national level. Sometimes the same
curriculum needs to be applied in different ways in order to allow regions to
present more contextual learning that is applicable for their students. This is
made possible by a yearly competition to create new textbooks. Producers are
given 12 months to create textbooks that follow specific curriculum content
guidelines for one grade level of one subject. After the twelve month period is
over, an ad hoc commission evaluates the textbooks and each year 2-5 textbooks
are chosen and receive accreditation before being printed. The goal of this
strategy is to provide districts the ability to mould common national
curriculum to meet the needs to local populations (ie- in rural areas, there
may be different situational problems than those used in cities). There is a committee
that forms a bank of "Learning by Doing Situations" and works with
regional representatives to create locally applicable ways to present the
national curriculum. Most textbooks have a lifespan of roughly three years, but
there is an option to extend this period if a textbook is found to be
effective.
The MoE's curriculum department is in charge of planning
curriculum from preschool to graduation, and two years after that. The
structure of schools is split into preschool, primary school, secondary school
(covering American middle school and high school. Then there is a two-year
preparation program, which basically culminates in a technical associate’s
degree. This is an intensive scientific preparatory program that prepares you
to complete the entry examination for
well known engineering schools. The curriculum department is in charge
of creating and influencing the content that will be studied at all levels, the
methods that will be used to teach, and all materials that go with classroom
instruction (books, computers, labs, etc). They are also in charge of
developing training for teachers, and confirming accreditation of the diplomas
granted by secondary schools.
The role of the curriculum department is outlined in a text
that defines exactly which areas the department is in charge of, and areas
where their input is needed. They are involved in the development of various
action plans, and determining the skills that students are expected to learn by
the end of each education cycle. They participate (along with others in the MoE
and society) in the development of academic programs that define what should be
taught in the classroom, and how education will develop important skills in
students. Constant evaluation of the programs allows the curriculum department
to course correct and change the curriculum to meet the needs of students. They
are also tasked with organizing textbooks and all related materials. Textbooks
are a central tool in the learning process and all schools (both public and
private) use books following the same curriculum. Secondary missions of the
curriculum department include: participation in strategic planning for teacher
training, supervision and research related to academic programs and their
content, and defining ways to measure the quality of learning.
 |
| Deep in thought, scribbling ferocious notes |
During and after the presentation, we were able to ask some
of the pressing questions we brought with us to Morocco and discuss some really
important issues facing the education system here. Sophia started by asking an
interesting question about how Morocco incorporates the Koran and Islam into
classrooms. Each week, students take a subject called Islamic Studies that
instructs them on the history of the religion. Students who are not Muslim (for
example there is a relatively large Jewish population) are exempt from this
class in public schools. Islamic values are also present in civics classrooms.
Another question addressed the issue of language policy in
Moroccan classrooms, which was the subject of much pre-trip research and
discussion. There is much disagreement about what the main language of
instruction should be, whether French or Arabic. Tamazight, a traditional
Berber language spoken by roughly 40% of the Moroccan population with high
concentration in rural areas, was only recently recognized as a third national
language (more on this later), and the country is struggling to figure how this
should be incorporated into the educational system. Debate has been sparked
(partially by us, haha) about what role Tamazight should have in classrooms.
The director talked about how the current language policy issues were really
started during French colonization. There were two types of elites in Morocco
at that time: those who spoke French and were educated in France, and those who
spoke Arabic and were educated in countries like Iraq. One of the first
policies put in place after the French left, was the Arabization of the
curriculum. Parents did, however, have the choice to put their children in
schools that had not participated in Arabization (and therefore spoke French).
It is now the role of the ministry and national population
to determine if they would like students to be trained in only one language,
and if so, what language. French is commonly spoken and Spanish could be
another option as Spain is very close to Morocco. Many higher education
institutions provide instruction at least partially in English, and some
provide all instruction in English. English is introduced at a basic level in
secondary schools, which gives students the ability to develop the foundational
skills necessary to succeed. Recent policy dictates that Tamazight should be
introduced at the primary level nationally; however there is a shortage of
trained teachers and currently coverage is at roughly 15%.
The 2001 National Charter stated that children from
Tamazight regions, or those who speak only Tamazight, should be put in schools
with a transitional language program that begins with the first year of
instruction in Tamazight before slowly introducing them to Arabic (which is the
language of instruction for primary school). The King decided to create an
institute to study Tamazight called IRCAM. They examined the three Berber
languages (Tamazight, Tashelit/Tasoussit, Tarafit) and standardized all three
into the current Tamazight language (including the creation of a standard
common alphabet). This was what was to be incorporated into the curriculum. New
manuals and guides were created, and teacher training was employed. 98% of
Moroccans recognized Tamazight as an official language of Morocco and voted it
in as part of the new constitution in 2011. The difficulty is how to
incorporate it into the education system, and what the timing should be for
Tamazight introduction. There are many challenges to increasing implementation
of Tamazight in classrooms, included increased budgeting, material development,
and teacher training. Regions are tasked with recruiting teachers who are
trained in the language and can implement it in class. A major struggle with
the combined language is that although it borrows from each of the Berber
languages, it has many differences that make it difficult for teachers to
adequately present it and teach students. In many ways it is like a student
having to learn a whole other language that is similar but not the same as
their native tongue. Much like we discussed yesterday, the policy is in place
but the problem is putting it into practice and making it operational. It is
also important that decisions are made regarding the impact, drawbacks, and
advantages of introducing three different alphabets at a young age (each
language has its own alphabet). There are many questions that still need to be
addressed before policy will be changed and practice will truly reflect these
changes.
Unfortunately, our first meeting ran over-time and we had to
reschedule our work session with the Director of Quality. Fortunately, the
morning was incredibly interesting so it was hard to feel sad.
After a short discussion about schedule changes and research
that we completed, we boarded our preschool bus and headed downtown to grab a DELICIOUS couscous lunch. We got so full gorging on the fluffiest and tastiest couscous I've ever
had. We also had the opportunity to drink a tall glass of buttermilk, which
was........interesting. Not something I want to consume every day
or really even ever again (unless it is baked into a delicious biscuit or
pancake or Mark's fried chicken).
Gaaah, so good! Couscous with beef, chickpeas, potatoes, pumpkin, carrots, squash and other tasty goodness.
A short ride on the preschool bus later we
found ourselves at a meeting with the Director of Staff Training in the
Department of Human Resources. Before the meeting started we had the
opportunity to look through some of the English textbooks that we were provided
by the curriculum department. They were AMAZING. Seriously, so good. They
covered really diverse topics that were applicable to the real world and
interesting for students. I was very impressed.
During the meeting, Rita had her work cut out for her as the director
delivered long soliloquies in French before she was allowed to translate to the
Harvard students whose eyes had now glazed over.
This division of the ministry is in charge of training not
just teachers, but also ministry staff, principals, trainers, and project
managers. We met with them to learn about the department's mission. They are
involved in three different levels of staff training: pre-service or foundation
training, in-service or continuing training, and pedagogical research. The
system employs about 300,000 teachers, roughly 140,000 of whom teach primary
school and about 70,000 more who teach secondary school (which, as we stated
yesterday, covers both middle school and high school). Most
of the people who start as teachers in Morocco have the potential for upward
mobility and can become managers, principals, or trainers. This
department focuses on the goal of increasing/reinforcing the competencies of
personnel and staff, as stated in the strategic plan.
The reform started by aligning student needs with
international standards (based off of the European standards). Current practice
is to provide training through universities, but also provide in-service
training as well. There are two main goals:
1. Providing new structure for
teacher training (creating more high schools for teacher training that are
linked directly to universities).
2. Creating a link between the
regional and provincial centers for primary teachers so that there is a more
uniform training for teachers throughout Morocco.
Universities use high schools for teacher training to
initiate potential teachers to the job, and then the students continue learning
how to become a teacher post-baccalaureate. For primary teaching, you must
complete three years after graduating high school (earning a bachelor's
degree). For secondary teaching, you must do at least five years (earn a
master's degree).
On new initiative for pre-service training, is to exchange
the initial training for qualifying training, which is practical and
theoretical. You learn on-site and at the university, so there is field
experience involved as well as student teaching. New pedagogy had to be developed
in order to implement the updated strategies and methods for teaching. This
office is in charge of developing the strategy, implementing it, and evaluating
it. Professional development is administered by the sixteen regional offices.
Each region elaborates the content (based on national standards) in order to
best meet the needs of their region. They all work on a common national project
as well.
The Director of Staff Training (in the middle) and his two associates with whom we spent most of the meeting.
I was very interested in the process used to assign teachers
their placements, and I was glad when Rita brought it up in the meeting. When
teachers complete their degree, they are at the "mercy of the
ministry" and are assigned to districts all over Morocco. Each year a
teacher works, they earn points which can be used to "earn" the
ability to transfer from one district to another. Beginning teachers are often
placed in the areas considered less desirable, namely remote and/or rural
placements left vacant by teachers transferring to the cities or closer to
their families. Teachers may first submit requests to transfer after they have
been teaching for three years at the primary level or five years at the
secondary level, but they are not guaranteed the opportunity to switch
placements. The Moroccan system is based on the French system, which was very
centralized. The current movement is towards decentralization, but it will take
time for human resources to catch up to it. In the future, local areas will be
in charge of recruitment, training, and placement, which will alleviate this
problem somewhat. It is also worth noting that this issue is common amongst
helping professions and public service positions in Morocco, and doctors are
also randomly assigned when they begin their careers.
Kana questioned the
representatives regarding how technology is used during teacher training, especially
for those stationed in rural areas. The ministry uses technology in
different teacher training projects. One such project is GENI, which is a
government-wide strategy that is used to introduce technology at two different
levels: during teacher training (using technology to improve teaching) and
integrating ICT into schools. Currently there is little focus at the national
level on teacher training specifically targeted towards rural teachers. Some
areas use long-distance teaching technology to implement teacher training.
Afi asked about whether teaching training includes retention
strategies that could be used to keep students in school. The division does try
to address student drop out by teaching strategies for psychological support of
children at risk, but much of it depends on what the teacher actually does in
class and is out of the MoE's hands. It is also hard to address all of the many
reasons for students dropping out through teacher training, but the MoE is
doing their best to support teachers and students and encourage them to remain
in school. By this time we had to run off to catch a lovely, new little tram
towards our next meeting with the Director of the Promotion of the Private
Sector of the Education System in Morocco.
Rachel explaining all things Morocco to Veronika
The private education system in Morocco is present from
preschool through graduation at traditional schools as well as technical
schools. It first emerged in the 1920s, and developed more in the 1960s when it
was institutionalized within the Moroccan political framework. Education
provided through the private sector is considered acceptable on all levels.
However, the private sector was/is never intended to replace the public sector,
only serve as a complement to it and increase opportunities and choice among
schools.
Private schools use the same curriculum (or supplemented
curriculum) and prepares for the same diploma as public schools. There were
3,168 private schools serving 641,000 students in 2011. Within the National
Charter, there is a regulatory chapter regarding private schools, cementing
their position in the national education scheme. There
are three ways in which the private sector is encouraged in Morocco: private
schools currently in existence are held to a high standard and evaluated, new
models for structure and management of private schools are created that help
the sector move towards future goals, and providing proper regulation and
monitoring of the private education sector.
Recently the law expanded to allow foreigners to create
schools in Morocco, however the curriculum and pedagogy implemented in the
schools should still be those mandated by the Moroccan government. The
exception to the rule is the existence of schools such as the French or
American school that is governed by an organization in the home country and
awards that country's diploma. Through the free trade agreements, Americans can
also invest in schools here.
Gearing up for an argument with the Director of the Private Sector in Education.
Sameera and Jane kicked off a really interesting discussion
about teacher training and the possible future privatization of the Moroccan
school system. Teacher training is different in private schools, where training
is not compulsory like in public schools. Trainings are open to private school
teachers, however, if they wish to seek them. Sometimes the MoE will also send
representatives to train teachers on-site in private schools. On-site training
is part of the MoE's commitment to providing support to the private sector. Separate
projects are also developed to address specific needs and help struggling
teachers meet standards.
As far as school privatization, the director views privatization
of schools as an opportunity for parents and the ministry; it could greatly
reduce the cost incurred by the government to provide students with education.
Rita questioned whether attendance at private schools would simply be for
families fleeing the public schools where quality is not the best. The director
expressed his belief that families are not leaving because the quality of
public schools displease them, but rather because they are offered more
opportunities in private schools, including specialized instruction or
extra-curricular activities. Since both public and private schools use the same
curriculum, the difference is mainly in the areas of delivery, infrastructure,
and extra services that are offered. One major motivating factor for families
to put their students in private school is the fact that private schools
provide transportation for students. Public transportation is only available in
areas where the school is not near homes, including rural areas, and is not
provided in major cities. Some NGOs provide transportation such as bicycles to
students or buses to communities to help students get to schools.
Brian brought up the question of cost, both direct cost of
tuition in the average private school and indirect costs of public schools for
families. The director reported that private schools greatly vary in their
cost, based on services provided and extracurricular activities. The cost will
also depend on the reputation of the school. The success rate of the
baccalaureate may be used as an informal indicator of how good the school is,
however a project is currently in the works to develop a system that will look
at various indicators of private schools and produce a national ranking. Costs
associated with public schools are minimum, roughly equivalent to $1.50 per
year per student. Uniforms and books are also an associated cost, which are
sometimes covered in rural areas in hopes of attracting more kids and reducing
drop outs.
I must say that this director, who also happened to be the
oldest, seemed most concerned with saving face and seemed to have the most
practiced answers that glossed over some of the problems. Every other person we
have talked to has seemed extremely open, frank, and well versed in the
problems that the system must address in order to succeed and improve in the
future. We have had a REALLY good track record with ministry officials!
Local mosque at sunset.
We walked to the next building where our final meeting of the day was being held, and we were greeted by a huge
group of representatives from the Division of Non-Formal Education. They employ
40 staff members and collaborate with many other departments. One of their main projects is opening schools in rural and
underserved areas, including literacy and mathematics as well as vocational
training. A major challenge in the rural areas is losing students from school
during the harvest season. Heritage program provides materials and
transportation for students who aren't participating in formal education.
Another program targets students who have recently dropped out of school in
hopes of providing them with a short training that allows them to go back into
formal education. Organizations involving multiple stakeholders are convened in
different areas to identify the local problem causing drop-out and strategies
to counteract it. Basic items associated with school (including clothing,
supplies, and transportation are provided to students in need, as well).
Counseling centers are also opened in schools in order to address psychological
issues that may cause students to drop out.
The department was formed in 1998, so it is fairly new to
Morocco. This was the first time that the country realized the huge number of
students out of school. Though they had focused on democratizing formal
schools, they had done little to implement non-formal education. They realized
that they needed to provide students who had dropped out with multiple chances
to reenter schools. There was a great deal of coverage in the news about the
issue, but people cared much more about what was actually being done. There are
lots of things that prevent students from being in school: social reasons,
economic difficulty, psychological barriers, etc. In order to make a real
impact, the division must work in the field, forming partnerships with
different members of civil society and organizations that can help the government
achieve the goals of non-formal education.
In the beginning, the department saw few results: only
30,000 students in second-chance schools even though the number of students
dropping out of school each year was just growing. There were two different approaches
that are being used to solve this problem: addressing it and preventing it. The
preventive approach creates a second level of security, aiming to keep students
in school. Each year, roughly 140,000 students drop out of Moroccan schools,
this directly effects almost every classroom in the country. One strategy to
address these high drop-out rates was through teachers, and the creation of a
system where they were asked to watch students for signs of possible future
drop out. Teachers are also supported at a pedagogical, school, and economic
level so that they can incorporate these strategies into their classroom easily
and effectively. The preventative approach must be combined with the curative
program in order to truly be successful. When applied together, there is a much
greater decrease in the number of students outside of school. The curative goal
of the program was to bring students back into the formal education system.
There is a program called Child-to-Child that encourages teachers and students
to look for children who recently dropped out, or were never enrolled in
school, and are asked to map these students in their community. Later in the
year, this data is used to track children and target them for enrollment in the
schools.
Meeting with the Department of Non-formal Edcuation...they were amazing!
Asumi asked the director how they leverage what local NGOs
are doing to work more effectively towards getting students back in school,
especially in rural areas. The director responded that in the 1990s, the number
of non-govermental organizations increased greatly, which was of great benefit
to the students. In the beginning, the MoE made use of these organizations
because they had already developed deep bonds within communities and had
greater access to the students in most need. A request for proposals is sent
out on a local level, and organizations respond with their proposed projects. A
commission is formed to determine which projects will be funded and put into
place, ranging from formal school support to creation of second-chance schools.
Budgetary restrictions are taken into consideration, and when projects are
selected, the necessary contracts are signed and the project is implemented.
Local people are hired and trained to implement the program, and their salaries
are paid. The MoE pays trainers to go into the communities and provide the
necessary training, textbooks, and materials. The Division of Non-Formal
Education also takes care of organizing the re-enrollment of students in
schools. In the situations described above, the NGOs working on the ground who
have a symbolic contract with the local community usually get all of the
credit, although the ministry plays an important role. The
division works with over 300 other organizations or other departments within
the ministry. This allows them to get deeper into communities and leverage
resources. One example is the non-formal education department working with the
Ministry of Youth to provide education and training to incarcerated children.
The MoE also supports students indirectly. Schedules are
very flexible in the non-formal system, reducing friction within the community
as students are able to work or take time off when it is required of them. Instead of bringing children to a set school,
the school is able to conform to meet the needs of the students and their communities.
Families from marginalized communities that demonstrate financial need are also
provided with support. Currently, the non-formal education department deals
only with child literacy, and their programs focused solely on children. There
is another department, located in the same building, which addresses adult
illiteracy. A new program is being started that will provide education to
parents and students at the same time in hopes of having a greater impact on
drop-out.
Dropouts occur particularly during the transition to high
school. This may be due to financial problems, safety concerns, or a myriad of
other reasons. Rural girls are particularly at
risk of drop out, as their parents don't send them to schools when the schools
are far from their neighborhoods and their families are more likely to
experience financial trouble. There are programs that provide transportation
(such as bicycles) to students so that they may be more likely to go to school
regardless of distance. Other programs provide food, scholarships, stipends,
materials, etc in order to make schooling more attainable.
For most of us, the last session of the day was the best. A
huge group (including women!) came out to represent the division and provided
us with all sorts of materials to take home. We were shown a video (in English!)
about non-formal education projects that they work on, given delicious cookies,
and just really warmly welcomed. It was wonderful. We were also given
incredible Moroccan tea, full of sugar at mint leaves, at nearly every meeting.
Just when you were about to crash from the sugar high created by the last cup,
they were there with another. SO GOOD. Also, very warm.
Rachel partaking in an offer of Moroccan tea at one of our meetings.
After our last meeting we headed over to the Goethe
Institute where we had drinks, played some games, and ate a tasty dinner. Afterwards
many headed out for a night on the town and five of us crammed in the back seat
of Rita and Amine’s (her wonderful husband) car here we had our own mini dance
party on the way home to blog, relax, and go to bed early. Tomorrow is going to
be a slower day with a late morning, and we are all excited about that.
Candlelight dinner at the Goethe Institute.
I just want to say, from the bottom of all of our hearts,
how thankful we are to have Rita as our guide. She has been endlessly gracious,
always helpful, incredibly patient, and an absolute POWERHOUSE of a translator.
I honestly cannot begin to imagine this trip without her, as it would have been
impossible to have anywhere near as amazing of an adventure. WE LOVE YOU
RITA!!! Its really too bad that there isn't a Brazilian and/or Jamaican version of you that could lead those trips as well. We got SO lucky.
